An exploration of knowledge and understanding – the eighth flow

The argument for understanding Lean construction as a socio-technical field is growing and the need to better consider the role of human beings within construction systems is becoming the dominant factor in project success. Many current attributes of lean already focus on people and on human engagement approaches but the field of lean construction addresses project environments that are often complex and highly variable. The authors argue that the successful delivery of these projects relies on the creation of a common understanding of the project objectives within the diverse value systems of project participants and wider society. Additionally, many of the new ways of working that lean thinking brings already support the creation of a common understanding and could be harnessed to better effect. Based on a literature review and supported by case study examples the authors explore the nature of knowledge and understanding and position them within an eight flow model for construction production. The findings indicate a need to reconsider the development of a common understand for each project due to the tacit nature of experiential knowledge held within the project team and the specificity and complexity of the project environment. As a result effort is required to generate and maintain a common understanding throughout the project duration. The continued attention and action required to maintain this common understanding elevates it to a flow of equal status to those identified in Koskela’s flow production model thus increasing the number of flows to eight. A significant lean construction case study is revisited and examined to identify interventions undertaken to achieve this generation and management of common understanding thus demonstrating that this development already exists, albeit intuitively, as an element of “lean thinking”

Introducing the concept of first and last value to aid lean design: learning from social housing projects In Chile

Value for the customer through efficient production processes is a fundamental principle of Lean. In Lean Construction, Value to customers is largely delivered through project planning and control activities only. Thus, it can be argued that Lean Construction overlooks the opportunity to address Value from the early stages of a project. Aimed at improving this, Lean Design arose as a new approach for design management promoting customer and end user involvement from the early stage of projects. However, even here environmental & social issues are postponed over individual requirements. As a result, Lean potential in general skips the opportunity to address Value from a wider perspective in which the return of Value from the construction industry to society is considered. This paper proposes dividing the wider understanding of the performance of the (global) built environment from the particular (local) project requirements calling the former First Value and the latter Last Value. The theory is triangulated through observation of how a developing country (Chile) is resolving social issues through the use of the built environment. The work described develops Lean Design Management by providing a clearer vision of Value to reduce waste and aid sustainability in the built environment

Impact of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) on construction projects

The changing face of construction projects has resulted in a movement towards the use of technology as a primary means of communication. The consequences of this rise in the use of information and communication technology (ICT) is a loss of interpersonal communication skills. A number of resulting issues within the human – electronic and human – human interfaces are identified in an attempt to define the efficiency of communication in projects. The research shows how ICT effects the social environment of construction project teams and the project outcome. The study seeks to confirm the need for further work in order to develop new forms of communication protocols and behaviour. An initial literature review was undertaken to develop a theoretical review of the impacts of ICT on construction project teams. This review identified a number of issues that were then tested in the field through an observation and two verification interviews. The research confirms the existence of tensions and conflicts in the human – electronic and human - human communication interfaces within the studies environment. It is proposed that the increasing use of ICT occur at the expense of soft system communication. The principal impact of this is a form of ‘human distraction’ which adversely affects the performance of project teams. There is limited theory exploring these issues that suggests the problems identified are not well understood and consequently indicates a gap in knowledge

The magic of the Last Planner® System for Nigerian construction

Extremely poor economic performance of the Nigerian construction industry suggests that non-value adding activities are prevalent, which result not only in the reduction of contractors’ profit margin but economic loss for the country in general. This study analyses non-value adding activities in Nigerian construction sites. The research seeks to establish potential antidotes within the Last Planner® System (LPS) and reveal the elements of the LPS which could be abstracted into Nigerian construction to improve performance. It was found that these elements form the theoretical basis for developing a lean approach that was labelled Last Planner® thinking

Exploring the implementation of the Last Planner® System through IGLC community: twenty one years of experience

There is robust evidence that the level of implementation of the Last Planner® System (LPS) is increasing geographically and geometrically in construction. The I nternational Group for Lean Construction (IGLC) community has reported this growth at IGLC conferences over this period. However, no study has explored how the LPS and its implementation has developed or improved. This study explored developments in the LPS from the review of IGLC conference papers. Qualitative research design utilising content analysis was adopted for this study comprising 57 IGLC reports on LPS implementation across 16 countries. The study reveals components of LPS implemented, with measuring of PPC, Weekly Work Planning meeting and recording reasons for non-completion the most reported. The study developed a timeline for the LPS development and revealed that some of the papers reviewed have no defined methodology. The study concludes that the LPS has developed in terms of its level of implementation, theory development, and as a vehicle to improve construction management practice across the major continents of the world, with elements that had little presence at the onset now prominent. The study recommends that more attention should be given to the relationship between practical applications and research methods to aid the establishment of sound theory to improve practice

Is good enough 'making do'?: An investigation of inappropriate processing in a small design and build company

Purpose: The aim was to address behaviour that led to inappropriate processing in a small design and build contracting organisation that employs direct labour. The objective was to reduce process waste and improve the value delivered to clients. This formed part of a larger knowledge transfer project (KTP) to improve performance on construction sites through the application of lean thinking. Methodology: Action research was used to identify and bring about change within the contracting organisation. The method was applied to live construction projects in the social housing sector in the greater London area. The intervention was to raise the awareness of site personnel to the importance of finishing tasks through informal discussions and visual management techniques. Findings: Raised awareness of the importance of finishing work to allow other trades to follow on unimpeded led to significant improvements in the quality and flow of work. This helped to contribute to significant savings in time and cost. Practical implications: This applied research is practical and cost effective to apply to live projects managed by small and medium sized contracting organisations. Academic implications: the observations made reveal a form of waste in construction that has not been widely recognised in the literature on Lean. Research limitations: Findings relate to a small SME with directly employed labour, therefore the findings have limited applicability. Further applied research is required to determine the generalisation of the approach/findings to organisations that subcontract their labour Originality/value: Provides a unique insight into the practical application of lean thinking tools and process improvement

Adaption of structured analysis design techniques methodology for construction project planning

The construction industry has been heavily criticised by researchers and governmental organisations for its performance especially excessive delay. Ballard and Howell (2003) indicated that only about 50% of the tasks on weekly work plans are completed by the end of the plan week. This is a result of a lack of either effective project planning or effective production control. It therefore seems the traditional approach of planning is insufficient to meet the current demand and complexity of construction projects. This paper proposes to critically evaluate the adaptation of Structured Analysis Design Techniques (SADT) methodology as a tool for project planning. SADT which was further developed into IDEF (Integrated Definition) techniques claims to be a complete methodology to provide the means of understanding complex production systems and aid the implementation of change. The use of this methodology has led to process improvement. The research uses a literature review followed by interviews with academics and practitioners to investigate their knowledge and understanding of SADT (IDEFO). The results of the interviews indicated that SADT (IDEFO) methodology is seldom known and used in the construction industry. However, this study indicates that SADT methodology appears to be an effective project planning tool. This study contributes to the limited project planning techniques in construction industry by exploring the possible adaption of SADT

A facilitators’ guide to the Last Planner® System: a repository of facilitation tips for practitioners

The facilitators guide to the Last Planner® System (LPS) was created through action-research by the authors and validated by expert reviewers. It provides tips, recommendations for further reading (through hyperlinks & references) and checklists for new facilitators of the LPS. It is also designed to help lean practitioners develop a better understanding of each of the key components of the LPS - “should”, “can”, “will”, “did” and “learn” – through a step by step approach. However, this guide is only supplementary support. Only the basic elements of the LPS are covered. It does not replace training and coaching from an experienced LPS facilitator. This guide is best introduced through a Study Action Team TM (SAT) after training/coaching and “hands on” practical experience. Initial learning of key elements of the LPS is most effective when introduced to teams using action-based learning and simulations and followed up with sessions that incorporate more of the key elements of the LPS. The focus must be on learning a little and using it rather than learn a lot and lose a lot. The guide includes the essential attendees (Last Planners) required at each of the different LPS sessions. Last Planners are the people who are closest to the work and responsible for project delivery. They range from architects and engineers to trade supervisors and inspectors. Each Last Planner must deeply understand their own work and any alternative methods for their work so that their contributions are effective to the team. They must have the authority to make decisions at each session to commit required resources. Their input is essential at each session. Efficient and effective execution of the project is achieved through the essential conversations and coordinated action(s). The sooner the Last Planners are engaged, the firmer the plan becomes. Some additional LPS facilitator guidance is in included in Appendix One, Two, Three, Four and Five. This includes key steps to pull planning, suggested LPS Ground Rules for effective sessions, Facilitator Checklists for LPS sessions along with some guidance how to use them, and suggested questions for LPS facilitators using the guide for a SAT session. Additionally, the authors recommend reading the practitioner’s guide to using the Last Planner System – Path Clearing Approach (LPS-PCA) along with this guide

Monetising human impacts. CLeMM: Customer Led Monetising Method

Executive Summary: This study has developed a Customer Led Monetising Method (CLeMM) to assess the monetary value of the human impacts of Highways England's operational services. CLeMM is simple in concept, easy to use and adaptable to a wide variety of situations enabling Highways England to use it in surveys, focus groups and other customer consultations for the widest range of stakeholders. The method for using CLeMM is described in the CLeMM Guide

Last Planner System Path Clearing Approach (LPS-PCA): an approach to guide; clients, main contractors and subcontractors in the implementation of the LPS

The implementation of the Last Planner System (also known as Collaborative Planning in the UK) in managing production planning and control in the construction is growing. However, recent evidence from different parts of the world suggests that LPS elements are partially implemented and at other times the implementation is stalled. This is largely due to the dearth of a holistic approach to support construction stakeholders in the implementation of the LPS. In view of these the Last Planner System Path Clearing Approach was developed based on evidence gleaned from three years research, to guide construction stakeholders (client, main contractor and subcontractors) in the implementation of the LPS. The Last Planner System Path Clearing Approach (LPS-PCA) integrates organisational, project and external path clearing levels. This expands previous approaches to the implementation of the LPS in construction which focused more on the project level. A pilot implementation of LPS-PCA on a real world project with a client organisation indicates that the developed LPS-PCA supports the implementation of the LPS on a construction project